- Glocalisation：
The glocalisation of manga and anime connects to long-standing debates over the translation process, and its connection to cultural power, authenticity, and nationhood, and discussion on the role and significance of the Japanese origins of manga and anime in the cross-cultural, global communication process spreads throughout academic and non-academic circles. The cross-cultural communication process, during which work is translated or adapted, is complex and multi-layered; it is not simply a process of replacing one language with another. The relationship between the communicating cultures influences the texts that are chosen for retelling, and the way in which they are retold (Venuti, 1995). Cross-cultural communication of a text also often involves adapting or translating cultural and national identity, which are fluid and unstable concepts, and thus open to varied interpretation. Cross-cultural communication of texts, therefore, has an important role to play in defining or changing the way in which a culture or nation is viewed and understood by others (Carbonell, 1996; Franco Aixela, 1996; Pym, 2001; Wolf, 2002).
‘Indeed, Wolf (2002: 186) sees translation as the site where cultures interact, and concepts of self and other ‘interpenetrate', making all cultures translations of each other. As manga and anime make their way across the globe, they become part of this interpenetration of cultures, and consumers' understanding of Japan will continuously change.‘
Glocalisation is an inevitable phenomenon arising from the spread of culture, and for the average consumer, it is the means and result of understanding an entirely new culture. The retelling and adaptation of texts can change the meaning of the original content, and the permeation of multiple cultures for understanding and integration can produce new cultural outcomes. Of course, we do not want a single, one-sided idea to be imposed on consumers, which is why independent comics have developed but also why they are severely limited.
2. The driving forces of glocalisation: technology and fandom:
'The popularity of manga and anime outside Japan is also promoted by enthusiastic fans, who might belong to a subculture or alternative culture, particularly in the earlier period of their fandom. The nature of commodification and marketing of both media results in the diversification of fandom. For example, manga can be difficult to understand for the uninitiated because of its visual and linguistic vocabulary, which is quite distinct from that seen in North American or European comics. Translated manga are also relatively expensive – in Australia, they can be three or four times more expensive than the Japanese original. These limitations on access to manga form a further subculture of specific consumers who are relatively young and have sufficient disposable income.’
Just because manga and anime have formed a unique cultural circle, their original consumer base is extremely loyal, while other cultural circles outside that have not yet been influenced by them have more potential consumer base and huge spending power, we should try to attract other cultural circles outside. Fans, or spending power, are diverse and convertible. We are not trying to break down subcultural circles to discover new consumer power for the sake of profit, but because cultures themselves exist in areas where they overlap, and individuals themselves have a curiosity for multiple cultures.